TORTOISES IN CAPTIVITY

In Southern Africa and especially in the Western Cape, we're blessed with the richest diversity of tortoises in the world, ranging from the endangered geometric tortoise to the common angulate tortoise. As a result, many of these creatures end up in captivity when people pick them up from the side of the road. Some tortoises are found wandering in the suburbs as escaped pets and there are numerous cases of buyers discovering their new homes come complete with tortoise!

It's important to remember that, as with any South African bird, reptile or mammal, you may not capture, transport or keep tortoises in captivity without relevant permits. You also may not release a tortoise back into the wild without permission from Nature Conservation, as the animal risks being released into the wrong environment, or the captive animal may bring disease into a susceptible wild population. If you have a tortoise without a permit, contact Nature Conservation to obtain the necessary.

As with any pet animal, you should always find out as much as possible about care and diet in captivity. Most medical problems associated with tortoises are as a direct result of incorrect husbandry.

Many tortoise species don't thrive in captivity and shouldn't be kept. Only the angulate tortoise and the large leopard tortoise should be kept, as they adapt well to captive environments.

Tortoises should be kept in an area with both grass and sand. The enclosure should be sunny and well drained to prevent damp, cold conditions in winter. Shelter should be provided - low dense bushes and/or man-made shelters. Tortoises prefer a cosy fit, so don't make the shelter too big.

It's advisable to keep the tortoises in a special enclosure to keep them in and the family dog(s) out! Some dogs view tortoises as mobile chewie toys, and their bites can be fatal.

Tortoises can also dig well and a solid barrier such as wood or a sunken vibracrete slab will prevent escapes by digging, as well as providing no grip for climbing. Mesh fencing can lead to injuries to the limbs and head if not lined with a smooth, solid material at ground level.

Fresh water should always be available - they often soil the water! Make sure the water container is not too deep and that even the smallest tortoise in the enclosure can climb out if it should fall in accidentally.

The diet should be varied, consisting of all kinds of fruit and vegetables, chopped or grated for smaller tortoises. A balanced diet typically includes: cucumber, cabbage, brussel sprouts, carrots, asparagus, waterblommetjies, alfalfa, tomatoes, spinach, apples, pears, strawberries, mangoes and melons. Avoid avocadoes and remember that only five percent of the diet should be fruit.

Also important are various plants from the garden including grass, gazanias, dandelions, nasturtiums, impatience and chickweed. Some tortoises eat millipedes and snails too. Don't feed too much lettuce as it has little nutritional value and is better used as a small part of a mixed fruit and vegetable salad that can be stored in the fridge for a few days.

A vitamin and mineral supplement powder should be sprinkled lightly over the food twice a week. An example of these would be Beefee powder, or Cani-Cal available at TAH. Be careful not to overdo the supplementation, as this could lead to other problems. A good diet will lead to healthy animals with strong immune systems.

Most diseases are associated with poor diet or incorrect housing, especially damp, cold enclosures in winter leading to respiratory infections. Dog bite wounds and other causes of shell trauma are common in summer.

Tortoises may carry salmonella bacteria, which cause diarrhoea and other serious diseases in people, so make sure you wash your hands after handling them. Do not handle them too often, as this may result in dehydration.

Under ideal conditions, tortoises will breed in captivity. Females will dig holes in well-drained soil in sunny areas to lay eggs. Angulate tortoises usually lay a single egg per clutch several times during the breeding season. Leopard tortoises lay several clutches containing 5-16 eggs. The eggs may take from three to 14 months to hatch!

Tortoises make great pets if cared for properly and become very tame. Don't remove them from the wild as they are often available on permit from other keepers, through the Cape Reptile Club or local zoos. Look after your tortoises well and they'll give you great pleasure for many years!

Fish - good husbandry

Tropical fish keeping is a popular hobby around the world. Fish are colourful, quiet, don't need much space and keeping them allows the creation of natural habitats in our homes. They help to educate children in the ways of nature and can introduce them to concepts such as life and death, responsibility and so on.

Unfortunately, many people start the hobby only to find that their first aquariums are failures - dying fish, green water and the plants don't grow. With a little homework, a good reference book and expert advice, pitfalls leading to new tank failure can be avoided.

Apart from a few parasitic diseases, many illnesses in fish are difficult to diagnose and treat and most of them are secondary to underlying environmental problems such as poor water quality, overstocking, stress, and low oxygen levels. Get the tank environment right and your fish should remain healthy.

Tank size
Depending on budget and space constraints, buy as large a tank as possible. Larger bodies of water are more stable and less prone to sudden temperature fluctuations and water quality.

Water chemistry
Two main factors in freshwater aquariums are pH and hardness. The pH scale measures acidity and alkalinity. Some fish come from rivers with a pH of below 7 (acidic water), such as the Amazon system, while others come from alkaline environments such as Lake Malawi. It's very important to keep fish in the correct pH. Don't mix fish from different environments.

Water hardness refers to the amount of dissolved minerals in the water. Soft water is mineral-poor, while hard water is mineral-rich, with a higher pH (more alkaline). Again, different fish are adapted to different water hardness levels. Don't keep soft water fish in hard water environments.

Both water hardness and pH can be tested with readily available test kits - establish the water parameters in your tank and buy suitable fish accordingly. Or, you may like a specific type of fish. Do research on the species and then create suitable tank conditions. Remember that pH tends to drop over time in a mature tank because organic substances break down, especially in soft water which has little buffering capacity. Check it regularly.

Water quality - Filtration
Fish excrete directly into their living environment and dangerous toxins build up quickly in confined tanks. The filter functions mechanically to clean debris out of the water, as well as biologically to remove these toxins.

Fish excrete ammonia which is highly toxic. The filter has bacteria that change ammonia into nitrite, which is also toxic. Different bacteria then change this nitrite into nitrate, which is far less toxic to the fish. Nitrate can be kept at acceptable levels by changing 25% of your tank water every two weeks under normal conditions. Large fish and sensitive species require more frequent water changes. New tanks and filters take about six weeks to build up a suitable population of beneficial bacteria. Thus, if you stock your new tank too quickly, ammonia build-up can kill fish within a few days.

Your kit should include tests for ammonia and nitrate. Good quality tank water has no ammonia or nitrite and acceptable levels of nitrate. If you have high ammonia and no nitrate, then your filter isn't working properly. Problems may include too many fish for the filter size, leftover food from overfeeding and a decrease in the water flow through the filter, due to intake blockage or dirty sponge media. Always clean the filter media in old tank water siphoned off during water changes, as chlorine in tap water will kill filter bacteria. Normal tank maintenance consists of scraping algae from the sides, siphoning debris from the gravel while removing 25% of the water and then replacing the removed water. Never empty the tank, clean it and fill it again, as this disturbs the system's maturity.

Oxygen
Low oxygen levels cause all the fish in the tank to gasp at the surface - check for overcrowding, an increase in temperature eg heater malfunction, or a water circulation decrease eg. blocked filter intake.

Fish
Not all fish species will be suitable for your tank. Some may grow too large, some may be too aggressive to keep with others or even too timid. Some require special tank conditions or special feeding. The golden rule is never to buy a fish that you know nothing about. Rather do research on the fish which has caught your eye and then decide whether it will be suitable or not. Information may be obtained from books, the internet (www.practicalfishkeeping.co.uk), or knowledgeable pet shop staff.

Keeping tropical fish is a rewarding and relaxing hobby. The basics of water chemistry and quality are easy to master with the right test kits and a bit of effort. Healthy water means healthy fish.

Overfeeding fish
Overfeeding is the major cause of fish loss resulting in waste accumulation because of uneaten food and increased waste produced by the fish eating more than they need.

It's easy to overfeed. Firstly, we forget how small they are. Secondly, feeding is one of the only ways we can interact with the fish, so we tend to do it too often. Thirdly, fish quickly learn that our approach means food is on the way. They come to the front and top of the tank, appearing eager and hungry. Don't think this indicates that they're famished!

Accumulated uneaten food and fish waste can result in lethal water chemistry changes. The breakdown products are toxic and can stress fish, making them prone to other diseases. Plus, overeating itself can cause health problems.

Problems include:

• High ammonia and nitrites - The protein in uneaten food and fish waste is broken down into ammonia and nitrites, which are extremely toxic to fish.
• Low oxygen levels - Uneaten food and fish waste decay in an aerobic process, resulting in less dissolved oxygen in the tank/pond.
• Low pH levels - Organic material breakdown also lowers the water pH because acids are produced during the process. Since each fish species has an optimal pH range, fish that prefer an alkaline pH are especially stressed.
• Fin rot - Fins can develop a moth-eaten, shaggy appearance and this often occurs when fish are stressed because of overfeeding.
• Fatty liver - Also known as hepatic lipidosis, this disease is more commonly seen in African cichlids and rainbow fish and is the result of overeating. It affects the liver function and can result in death.
• Algae bloom - The major cause of this is overfeeding. Unsightly blue-green and red algae multiply when there are large quantities of dissolved organic material, nitrates and phosphates in the water, common occurrences when fish are overfed.
• Mould - If the gravel or plants have white, cottony material growing on them, the problem may be mould or fungus. As with algae, these organisms grow when there are increased levels of organic material in the water.
• Planaria (flatworms) - These small white or tan worms are good indicators that water quality isn't optimal - usually in tanks where overfeeding has occurred. Generally considered harmless, they will eat fish eggs.
• Clogged filters - Filter systems aren't designed to correct the excessive problems that occur with overfeeding. Uneaten food and waste material can collect on the filters, continue to produce toxic products and clog the filters, thereby reducing their capacity to function even more.

To avoid overfeeding:
Feed on schedule - Usually twice daily. If possible, more frequent and smaller feedings are preferred.
Feed the proper amount - Determine how much to feed your fish by observing them while they feed. Add three flakes per fish. If all the food has been eaten within several minutes, feed another small amount. The general rule of thumb is to only feed them as much as they can eat within 4-5 minutes. Anything not eaten after 5 minutes will likely not be eaten. Check that all of them are eating. Always feed based on the number of inhabitants, not the size of the tank. Regardless of tank size, spread the food out over the water surface to allow more fish to eat simultaneously.
Feed the proper food - Feeding a poor quality or stale food will not only lead to malnutrition, it will lead to more waste, since the fish won't eat it. Some fish need floating food, while others prefer food that sinks. Research the feeding habits of your species and feed accordingly with quality food.
Remove uneaten food - Remove uneaten food after a feeding with a siphon or fine net. The filtration unit wasn't designed to correct overfeeding problems. If you know or suspect overfeeding has occurred, perform a partial water change by siphoning 25% of the water from the bottom of the tank. Use the siphon to pick up as much debris from the substrate as possible.
Include scavenging inhabitants - Scavenger fish (catfish and loaches) and invertebrates can assist in eliminating some of the uneaten food that falls to the bottom of the tank or pond. However, they're not a fix-all.
Educate family members and fish-sitters - Only one family member should feed the fish. If it isn't possible, use a log to mark off when the fish have been fed to avoid duplicate feedings. When leaving on vacation, use an automatic feeder that your fish-sitter can check on. If you're away for 2-3 days, most fish won't have a problem if they're not fed during that period. Feed them well for the week prior to leaving. For herbivorous species add a live plant, such as Anacharis, to the tank. Many fish will nibble on the plant when other food isn't available.

So, for the health and enjoyment of your fish, don't feed too much.

It's imperative to do thorough research before introducing a pet into the family. What's the adult size of the proposed pet? What are its nutritional requirements? What are the ideal living conditions? Does it like company, or is it a solitary animal? Behavioural considerations? Temperament? Hygiene needs? Health and well-being? Care and boarding when going on holiday?

Should rodents top your child's list of preferred pets, ensure that he/she has learnt everything there is to know about the particular rodent.

Cages should be as large as possible and must be cleaned daily. Don't use shavings as lining. Apart from hiding dust and dirt, ammonia build-up in shavings often lead to respiratory infections. In addition, shavings cause micro-splinters in the feet of rodents. Newspaper is ideal as a hygienic cage lining.

Keep your pet mentally stimulated with obstacles such as branches, bark, sticks, foliage and things to chew. Also, introduce tunnels in the form of toilet rolls and tea boxes. Hanging bird seed bars provide much amusement. With sufficient mental stimulation, rodents will live much longer.

Most veterinarians advise against mice as pets as they are much too small. Despite being cute and cuddly, hamsters don't make satisfactory pets. But if a hamster is your child's choice, rather settle for an even-tempered male. Females are notoriously grumpy and nippy. Also, many people make the mistake of keeping more than one hamster in the same cage. These rodents are solitary by nature and must be kept in separate cages.

There are three crucial considerations about keeping hamsters:

• As nocturnal creatures, they detest being woken during the day and could be quite nippy when disturbed. Respect their nocturnal habits and only play with them from dusk into the evening.
• Hamsters have bad eyesight. Therefore, don't put your pet on a bed or table, because should it fall down, the injuries could be severe.
• They're tiny little things - don't hold them too tightly.

Should your child want to breed hamsters, the female should be put into the male cage at dusk and not the other way around. The bad-tempered little shrew is likely to kill her would-be suitor if he invades her space.

Rats make great pets. They have good temperaments and may be kept in pairs or small groups - provided the cages are large enough. Being acrobatic, they need things to hang from, crawl through, jump on and so forth. A good diet of commercial rat pellets is essential. Small amounts of left-overs may be given occasionally. Children should not to over-feed their rat pets. Apart from the usual side-effects of obesity, rats get pressure sores on their hocks from lack of exercise when they're too fat. Every two weeks, the rats may be washed with a mild dog shampoo.

Physical and mental stimulation
Rats and mice are active, intelligent animals that require exercise and mental stimulation for optimal health. There are many fun ways to enrich your pet rodent's environment.

Tunnels - place hardened plastic or PVC tunnels in the cage or hang by stainless steel wire hangers. Many of them come with elbows to make a maze. PVC is easily cleaned. Select piping with a large enough diameter to prevent the rodent from becoming stuck. Wood blocks also can be drilled to make tunnels.

Exercise wheels and balls - This is an excellent way for a rodent to exercise in his cage. Solid wheels are preferred and rats generally require a 28 cm diameter wheel. Some wheels can be hung from the top or side of the cage. Exercise balls provide good exercise outside the cage. Always monitor your pet while it plays on an exercise ball to ensure it doesn't overheat.

Climbing toys - Ladders, ropes, branches, tubes, cement bird perches, stacked boxes (securely fastened) and hammocks provide excellent climbing activities. Bricks and concrete blocks also may be used in a large cage.

Chewing toys - Chewing is necessary for dental health since rodents' teeth keep growing and need to be worn down. Sensible chew toys for rats and mice include rawhide, preservative-free wood and cardboard. Paper tubes from toilet paper or paper towelling, cardboard boxes and egg cartons are alternatives.

Shredding toys - Rodents enjoy shredding soft substances such as toilet paper, straw, sisal, etc. These provide great entertainment and material with which to line their sleeping area.

Push and carry toys - Some sturdy hollow plastic cat toys with bells inside make fun rodent toys. Don't give your rodents rubber toys since small pieces that may be chewed and swallowed could cause an intestinal obstruction.

Foraging toys - Provide mental stimulation by hiding food in foraging toys designed for birds, such as pieces of bamboo. Fill the holes with some of your pet's food and watch him work to retrieve it. You can even make your own out of cardboard tubes or PVC.

Use your imagination and you will be able to give your pet mouse or rat toys that will provide hours of enjoyment.

Snake & Dragon Husbandry

Do your research before deciding to keep a pet snake or dragon.

Reptiles need an enclosure with heating, lighting, etc, which can cost far more than the pet itself. Check the animal's adult size. Can you keep a Burmese python when it reaches 4 m in adulthood? Buying a cute 40-cm baby python isn't wise! Most diseases that occur in exotic animals are related directly to their captive environment and diet. Keeping them properly means keeping them healthy.

Snakes
Should you decide to become a snake aficionado, ensure that the chosen reptile is non-venomous - not only for the obvious risk to the owner, but for the danger to others and liability to the owner if the pet should escape.

However, first check the legal requirements of keeping a snake as a pet. Join a reptile club to find suitable snakes and obtain as much information as possible. Ideally, pet snakes should be captive-bred by reputable breeders. Wild caught snakes tend to be more stressed and prone to parasites and disease, plus they're more difficult to tame. Also, they're quite nervous and difficult to feed in captivity.

For inexperienced owners, the relatively small corn or king snakes are the best choice. They tend to be gentle and meeting their dietary and environmental needs is not as difficult as for some other species. Experienced owners might want to try a ball python. Different species have different dietary and environmental requirements.

No matter which type of snake, a secure, escape-proof enclosure will be necessary. Snakes can be quite persistent in trying to escape, so it should close securely with no gaps, or prepare to become an expert at tracking snakes in your house.

No snake eats vegetation. You'll have to feed it pre-killed mice or rats, while a select few can be fed other items such as fish or insects. Feeding live rodents should be strictly prohibited - not only from the rodents' point of view, but when the snake isn't hungry these rodents can inflict the hapless snake with nasty bites.

All snakes represent a commitment to long-term care, with life spans of about 20 years for corn and king snakes and perhaps 40 or more years for ball pythons. The latter have a reputation of being difficult to feed due to their tendency to sometimes stop eating for months at a time. If you choose a ball python, make sure it's captive-bred and used to eating killed prey. Ask for a feeding demonstration to ensure the snake readily takes pre-killed mice.

Beginners should avoid Burmese pythons, red-tailed boas, water snakes, any tree boa or python. Burmese pythons have been involved in human fatalities (mainly due to improper housing or handling) and need careful handling. It's generally recommended to have extra people around when handling or feeding large Burmese pythons because of their size and strength. Red-tailed boas (also known as boa constrictors) aren't quite as large, but are more work to care for than smaller snakes and may require assistance when handling. Tree boas and pythons have strict temperature and humidity requirements, while water snakes also have very specific care requirements.

Anacondas and reticulated pythons aren't recommended as pets - they're huge, have poor temperaments and are potentially dangerous.

Snakes are solitary, so keeping just one in a cage is fine. The well-ventilated cage, which should be maintained regularly, must be large enough for the reptile to move freely. The main health problems in pet snakes are skin and mouth infections due to poor sanitary conditions. Stress also causes problems - which is why handling should be limited to twice a week.

Dragons
More and more people seemed to be keeping bearded dragons, despite the fact that they actually are illegal in the Western Cape. The reason for the ban is that nature conservation authorities are concerned about the possibility of feral populations establishing themselves from escaped captive individuals.

A bearded dragon is an Australian lizard which lives in arid, hot environments. They make great pets, provided you can look after them properly in the right environment and with correct nutrition. Being desert animals, they have a high UV light requirement. They also need a varied diet, including fruit and vegetables and insects such as crickets. Thus feeding them is a bit of a chore; so owners tend to not feed them properly.

This leads to a common ailment, called metabolic bone disease. Basically, this is a shortage of calcium, leading to soft bones, fractures, weakness, lack of appetite and poor growth. A calcium deficiency is not only due to insufficient calcium levels in the food, but also can occur if the animal isn't exposed to enough UV light. The latter is required to activate vitamin D3, which, in turn, is important for calcium absorption from the intestine.

Rabbits as pets

Before deciding on a rabbit as a pet, be aware that these cute animals are NOT low-maintenance. It takes much work to care for rabbits properly. Do research and take note of the points below.
• Being social, rabbits need loads of interaction with their owners and/or other rabbits to be happy. Daily playtime and exercise outside their encampment are necessary.
• Rabbit pellets alone aren't a sufficient diet - they need roughage in the form of grass, good quality hay sometimes and a variety of fresh vegetables. Grass is the natural rabbit diet - good for their teeth and gut.
• They need to chew, so many safe chew toys should be provided.
• A relatively large enclosure is needed. Spaces where the rabbit is allowed to run must be rabbit-proofed.
• They're also better off indoors at night to be social with their family as well as safe from predators (even in the city) and extreme weather.
• While they're generally quiet pets, rabbits aren't a good match for active young children who may not be careful when picking them up or playing around them.
• Rabbits like to be near their people, but they would rather not be held.
• They possibly may require veterinary care, which can be expensive. It's essential to have them spayed or neutered by a vet experienced with surgery on rabbits.
• Rabbit urine can have a strong odour so expect to change their litter box frequently (spaying and neutering help reduce the odour). In addition their urine is high in calcium so can leave a chalky residue when it dries (vinegar is quite effective).

Please consider adopting a rabbit from a shelter. There are many perfectly good pets looking for homes. When buying from private breeders make sure the breeder takes good care of the animals and that the babies are well socialised.